Notes to Broadcasters

Donkeys are a common sight in many parts of Africa, and are most often used for carrying loads. This story, however, shows they have many more uses. They are valuable assets to a farming family, and not only in mountainous areas.

The donkey is a herbivorous animal and the smallest member of the horse family. Young donkeys are called foals. A young male is a colt and a young female a filly. Adult female donkeys are known as jennies and adult males as jacks.

Donkeys can be affectionate animals. They enjoy company, and need companions or they will become depressed. Donkeys have a reputation for being stubborn, but this can be changed with good training. If they sense danger or become afraid, they may refuse to move.

Donkeys can live to 35 years of age or more. However, in Africa it is more common for donkeys to have a lifespan of around 10 years. The donkey’s favorite pastime is rolling in earth.

Some basic facts on donkeys can be found here: http://www.fao.org/ag/aga/agap/frg/Draught/chap122/chap122.pdf

More information on using donkeys as pack animals is available here: http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/product_info.php?products_id=213

For using donkeys as animal traction, this is useful information: http://www.atnesa.org/donkeyworkshop.htm

And here is an interesting story of how donkeys are used as mobile libraries: http://www.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2008-07-30-voa13-66672542.html

Farm Radio International has produced a number of scripts related to livestock and draught power. Here is a selection:

-Appropriate farming tools for African women farmers. (Package 82, Script 7, November 2007)

http://www.farmradio.org/english/radio-scripts/82-7script_en.asp

-Protect your Livestock in Times of Emergency. (Package 64, Script 3, July 2002)

http://farmradio.org/english/radio-scripts/64-3script_en.asp

-Radio Spots About Livestock Health. (Package 63, Script 2, April 2002)

http://farmradio.org/english/radio-scripts/63-2script_en.asp

This Farm Radio Weekly news story reported on the increase in use of draught animals:

-Africa: High food, fuel costs make draught power more appealing (Issue 29, July 2008)

Donkeys are often overlooked or undervalued. You may wish to run a feature show that explores how they are used and their value to a family. You could look at:

-Have farmers in this region used donkeys for plowing? What experiences with this can farmers share? What local resources are available to help farmers interested in experimenting with donkeys as draught animals?
-Is raising a donkey costly? Are they easy to look after?

-How has using a donkey increased a family’s income? For example, are farmers able to get more produce to market? What other benefits or uses do they have?

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Banana Xanthomonas wilt (BXW), also referred to as bacterial wilt or banana wilt, was first identified 40 years ago in Ethiopia. It is now common in key banana-growing countries, including Uganda, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda and Tanzania. The disease kills banana plants and spreads easily via insects, infected tools and through planting infected suckers. Infected plants and plant parts should be destroyed. BXW is a real threat to banana production.

Scientists at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, or IITA, have successfully transferred proteins from the green pepper plant into banana in a search for resistance to bacterial wilt. Dr. Leena Tripathi is research head at IITA. She says, “The Hrap and Pflp genes work by rapidly killing the cells that come into contact with the disease-spreading bacteria, essentially blocking it from spreading any further.” Transformed bananas, infused with Pflp or Hrap proteins, have shown strong resistance to BXW in the laboratory and in screenhouses, according to IITA.

This kind of genetic modification is a controversial topic. Those in favour claim it is a vital tool to secure food for future populations, and that there is little risk to human health. Those against genetic modification of plants state that the risks are unknown, that modified plants are a threat to the environment, that viable alternatives exist, and that research funds should be used in other ways.  Opponents of genetically modified crops often see the biotechnology industry as a threat to food sovereignty.  For more information on genetic modification, refer to Notes to broadcasters on GMOs from 2009 at http://weekly.farmradio.org/2009/02/23/notes-to-broadcasters-on-gmos-2/.

Extensive information on Banana Xanthomonas wilt can be accessed here: http://platforms.inibap.org/xanthomonaswilt/

This poster gives brief, clear information on bacterial wilt, together with photos and advice to farmers on how to control it: http://www.cialca.org/files/files/extension_materials/bxw_english.pdf

Farm Radio Weekly has reported on banana diseases before. From Uganda, this story relates Mary Kibutayi’s experience in controlling the disease:

-Cassava stems are a simple solution to devastating banana diseases. Issue 81, September 2009.

This story relates how farmers have used mobile phones to access information about banana diseases:

-Text messages are new weapon in fight against banana disease. Issue 62, April 2009.

These Farm Radio International scripts describe what farmers can do to avoid the disease:

-Farmers Try to Beat a Virulent Disease.Package 81, Script 6, August 2007

-Recommendations for managing bacterial wilt in bananas for Eastern Africa. Package 71, Script 2, June 2004

If you broadcast to an area where banana diseases are common, you might consider preparing a call-in or text-in show to get reactions to the claim that a genetically modified banana may be the solution to banana Xanthomonas wilt disease. Here are some suggested questions to get the discussion going:

-To what degree have farmers been affected by wilt? How have they coped with it? Have they managed to control it? How?

-Do farmers and/or extension staff welcome a genetically modified crop as the answer to this disease? Are they aware of the discussions surrounding genetically modified plants? Where do they get their information on genetically modified plants?

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The locust species in our story from Madagascar is the Malagasy migratory locust, with the scientific name Locusta migratoria capito. But this species of locust does not always swarm. In southwest Madagascar, they typically live on their own as individuals.

According to the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), once locust populations reach a certain number, a locust’s body chemistry changes. It undergoes a behavioural, ecological and physiological transformation.

Individual locusts then start to congregate and move in swarms. They travel to find new sources of food that can support their numbers and needs for breeding. Their bodies change, allowing them to fly over greater distances − up to 100 kilometres a day. Their digestive systems change in order to accommodate a wider range of vegetation and crops.

A single locust can consume roughly its own weight in food every day − about two grams. FAO states that one tonne of locusts, a very small part of an average swarm, eats the same amount of food as 2,500 people.
While the cost of the control operation is estimated at 15 million American dollars, experience shows that it is worth it. Countries in North and northwest Africa that did not control locust populations when the swarms started in 2003 spent about 400 million American dollars to bring them under control.

Farmers and NGOs can inform government plant protection and local agricultural officers if they spot locusts. This can help greatly prevention. Farmers should take note of:
1. the colour of the locusts
2. their behaviour (flying, egg laying, settled on the ground, on bushes or trees, etc.)
3. if they have wings (adults) or are wingless (hopper nymphs)
4. when (date) and where they are observed (place name, latitude/longitude coordinates if possible)
5. the size of the infestation (small, medium, big) and density (low, medium, high)

You can find more information about locusts in French here: http://www.cirad.mg/fr/acrido.php
And here are some useful references in English:
-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migratory_locust
-http://www.fao.org/ag/locusts-CCA/en/1010/1018/1078/index.html
-http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/05/100525202301.htm

Farm Radio Weekly has reported on locust outbreaks before. For example:
-Locusts destroy crops and pastures in Kenya, threaten farm lands in Sudan (FRW #1, December 2007) http://weekly.farmradio.org/2007/12/03/east-africa-locusts-destroy-crops-and-pastures-in-kenya-threaten-farm-lands-in-sudan-various-un-sources/
This story looked at biological control of locusts:
-Biological pesticide halts locust invasion (FRW #76, August 2009)

A Farm Radio International script published in 1994 deals with the related issue of grasshoppers and non-swarming locusts (“Control Grasshopper and Locusts on Your Farm,”Package 32, Script 2, April 1994). Unlike the swarming Migratory locusts, grasshoppers and non-swarming locusts can be combated on individual farms without the use of pesticides.

If you broadcast in an area that is, or may be, directly affected by the outbreak, you could consider producing a show to highlight the issues:
-If possible, send reporters to speak with people in affected areas. Find out how they are affected and what they are doing to cope
-Keep in touch with relevant authorities and NGOs for accurate and up-to-date information on the situation, and take note of any support services available to those who are affected

If you broadcast in an area that is unlikely to be directly affected by the current outbreak:
-Consider informing your listeners about the pest outbreak
-Broadcast information on how to control the pest or other pests that pose a threat to farmers in the area

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Human urine is readily available, costs nothing and contains many nutrients that plants can use to develop and grow. It is sterile in the body. As it leaves the body, it naturally picks up some bacteria. Very few diseases, however, are transmitted through urine. Handling urine is low risk.  But it should not be applied to plants directly. It should be applied to soils only when diluted, and often works best in combination with ash, or when added to and applied in compost. It is often regarded as a waste material, and many people shy away from using it. When used carefully, however, this waste material can increase yields and be a useful, affordable resource for farmers.

For more information on the use of human urine in agriculture, you may refer to some of the following articles:
This leaflet provides concise details about how to use human urine as a fertilizer:
https://www.uni-hohenheim.de/respta/poster/urine_fert.pdf
Researchers in Finland and Sweden have been examining the effectiveness and safety of human urine as fertilizer: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=human-urine-is-an-effective-fertilizer
They specifically looked at using a mixture of urine and ash as tomato fertilizer: http://www.scientificamerican.com/blog/post.cfm?id=p-is-for-plants-human-urine-plus-as-2009-09-04
The use of night soil, or human excrement, is a centuries-old tradition in China. See:  http://www.agroecology.org/Case%20Studies/nightsoil.html

The use of urine and night soil is also found in Africa. Here is a magazine article with a case study from Tanzania, where local farmers made the most of all available resources to improve their soils and productivity: http://www.leisa.info/index.php?url=getblob.php&o_id=209105&a_id=211&a_seq=0

Farm Radio Weekly published a story from Uganda about farmers using human urine as fertilizer:
-Uganda: Farmers find that human urine is an effective fertilizer, (FRW#14, March, 2008.)

You may wish to host a call-in or text-in show that invites local farmers to share their experiences using unconventional “waste” materials in agricultural production:

-Have any farmers in your area tried using human urine as a fertilizer? How do they collect and store it?  -What application procedure did they find most effective (for example, how much did they dilute the urine and how often did they apply it)? What kind of results did they see?
-What other locally available “waste” materials do farmers use to make fertilizers, pesticides, or other useful materials? Where did they get the idea? Did they develop it from an existing practice or adapt it according to their needs? How did they test the materials and what were the results? Can they describe exactly how they make and use the material to get the best results?

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Different species of cactus have been used as animal fodder in dry regions around the world, from Latin America to Australia. But not all researchers agree on its usefulness. Most state that it has potential only under certain circumstances, such as drought.

The report from Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) suggests that farmers should focus on using spineless cactus (Opuntia) species. These include Opuntia ficus-indica, O. vulgaris and O. leucotricha.

Cactus plants are famed for surviving in harsh conditions. They need very little moisture to survive, and often produce large plants. But Ben Lukuyu, an animal nutritionist at the International Livestock Research Institute in Nairobi, says the cactus’s low protein and dry matter content limit its use as a source of fodder to periods of extreme drought.

John Kang’ara, the lead researcher of the KARI report, says, “A cow consuming 40 kilograms of fresh cactus per day actually consumes 35 litres of water contained in the plant.” Though cactus is not a nutritionally well-balanced feed, the scientists say that this amount of water can keep an animal alive through a drought. “Under normal circumstances, a well-fed lactating cow consumes between 80 and 120 litres of water per day – depending on the size of the animal,” says Mr. Kang’ara.

Concerns have been raised that the plant will become an invasive weed. In Mexico for example, Opuntia took over wide areas of rangeland. It spreads easily and grows rapidly. Farmers need to be careful when using or planting cactus for fodder, so that it does not become unmanageable. KARI is planning to do more research on cultivation and management practices for farmers.

The full paper from KARI, which includes paragraphs on why cactus is an appropriate fodder in a changing climate, and highlights farmers’ experience with cactus in Kenya, can be read at: http://www.visbdev.net/visbdev/fe/Docs/Cactus.pdf.

Here is another article that discusses the potential of cactus as fodder: http://www.new-ag.info/focus/focusItem.php?a=340.

Background information on Opuntia, plus photos and a long species reference list, can be viewed at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opuntia.

Farm Radio International has produced one script on the versatility of cactus:
-The many uses of the prickly pear cactus, Package 44, Script 8, April 1997
Here is another relevant script:
-Livestock management practices to cope with climate change (Package 84, Script 7, August 2008)

This news item raises the issue of using locally available resources to cope with periods of stress. During drought, animals often suffer as fodder becomes scarce. For livestock keepers as well as pastoralists, having sufficient fodder is of vital concern. If you broadcast to a dry region where cactus is common, this topic would make a good call-in or discussion program:

-What experiences do farmers have with cactus as animal fodder?
-Is it common where they live? Do they know which type or species grow locally?
-Under what circumstances would they use it as animal fodder?
-Would farmers consider growing it to use as a backup option during drought? Or is it seen as an ornamental plant, or a weed?
-Can farmers access information locally about the benefits and drawbacks of using cactus as fodder?

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Rats are commonly regarded as pests throughout the world. Rats and other rodents such as mice eat crops, contaminate stored food, damage buildings and possessions, and spread dangerous diseases to people and livestock.

Rats will quickly populate an area if they find food and shelter. Thus, prevention is better than cure. It is important to keep houses, gardens, storage and community areas clean and rubbish-free. Remove any materials or equipment such as boxes or containers that rats can use as shelter. Food scraps or peelings should not be left lying around, and storage areas should be checked regularly for signs of rats.

Rodents are often controlled with poisons, but this has many drawbacks. Poison can enter the food chain, killing other animals. It also poses a threat to human health, with accidental poisonings common. Rat traps are often the most effective method for controlling rats. Traps can be bought or made.

The Food and Agriculture Organization provides brief guidelines on rodent control: http://www.fao.org/docrep/t1838e/T1838E1l.htm

A new design for rat traps has been researched in South Africa: http://www.researchintouse.com/nrk/RIUinfo/PF/CPP62.htm

Here is a magazine article about managing rodents ecologically in Bangladesh: http://ileia.leisa.info/index.php?url=getblob.php&o_id=200564&a_id=211&a_seq=0

Farm Radio International has produced a number of scripts on rats and on pest control in general. Here are three which look more specifically at rats:
-Dealing with Rats (Package 61, Script 11, October 2001)
-When Rats Gain, Farmers Lose: How to Store Grain Properly (Package 66, Script 3, March 2003)
-A farmer uses jatropha to protect his young oil palm seedlings from rodents (Package 90, Script 6, April 2010)

Perhaps you would like to develop a radio program about rodent infestation and control. Here are some questions you could raise:

-Which rodents are common in the region?

-Do they cause damage to houses and crops throughout the year? Or are they worse in a particular season? If so, why?
-How are rat and mice populations controlled at the moment? Are current methods adequate? What are the advantages and disadvantages of the methods used?
-What is done to prevent infestation? Could more be done? Do farmers or communities see current preventive measures as effective in controlling rat populations?

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This story highlights long-term measures that communities and families can adopt to make them less vulnerable to drought and hunger. Farmers can implement certain systems and techniques to make their farming system more robust and improve their chances of recovering after shocks such as droughts or crop failures.

The three techniques covered in the story are: use of local foods, drip irrigation and micro-dosing of fertilizer.

Many locally available foods −  including amaranth, green leaves and sesame − are nutritious and versatile.  They can easily be grown around homesteads and used in times of need.  General information about such crops can be found here: http://www2.bioversityinternational.org/Themes/Neglected_and_Underutilized_Species/index.asp.

A document about leafy vegetables called “The benefits of traditional vegetables: One Community’s story” can be downloaded here: http://www.bioversityinternational.org/index.php?id=19&user_bioversitypublications_pi1[showUid]=2951.

Drip irrigation is an effective way to water thirsty vegetable crops. But it can be expensive for small-scale farmers to establish drip systems. Farmers need assured markets in order to make the initial investment. They also need a secure water supply. If drip irrigation were adopted on a large scale, it could impact water sources which are already under stress, as in Burkina Faso. For more discussion of and descriptions of drip irrigation, here are some links:

http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/product_info.php?products_id=56

http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE6452QZ20100506?feedType=RSS&feedName=everything&virtualBrandChannel=11563

A short video about drip irrigation in West Africa:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tQZxvYW3Ac0

A related news story from Zimbabwe:

http://allafrica.com/stories/201007080324.html

Micro-dosing of fertilizer has produced impressive results in Niger. Scientists at ICRISAT explain that the soils are so depleted of nutrients that they respond well to small amounts of inputs. One constraint is that fertilizer is usually sold in 25kg bags, which are either too expensive or too great a quantity to be cost-effective for small-scale farmers.

For more information on ICRISAT’ s work in Niger, see: http://www.icrisat.org/newsroom/latest-news/one-pager/africa-hunger/africa-hunger-crisis.htm.

A photo gallery about micro-dosing of fertilizers in Niger can be viewed at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-10698153.

Here are some relevant Farm Radio International scripts:

A healthy diet for babies and young children Package 69, Script 1, December 2003 http://farmradio.org/english/radio-scripts/69-1script_en.asp

Winning the Race with Traditional Foods Package 65, Script 4, October 2002 http://farmradio.org/english/radio-scripts/65-4script_en.asp

Drip irrigation Package 84, Script 12, August 2008 http://farmradio.org/english/radio-scripts/84-12script_en.asp

Supply Water Directly to Plant Roots with Pitcher and Drip Irrigation Package 71, Script 10, June 2004 http://farmradio.org/english/radio-scripts/71-10script_en.asp

Micro-doses of Fertilizer Increase Yields in the Sahel Package 79, Script 4, November 2006 http://farmradio.org/english/radio-scripts/79-4script_en.asp

Dr. Compost Answers Questions About Soil Improvement Package 61, Script 9, October 2001 http://farmradio.org/english/radio-scripts/61-9script_en.asp

The availability of water and how water is applied to a crop is fundamental when deciding which crops to plant and when.  You might like to produce a radio program about irrigation methods.

-What methods of irrigation are common in the region?

-How do these irrigation methods affect farmers’ choice of crops?

-How much information is available to farmers on new or improved irrigation methods?

-Is there local support for investing in irrigation?

-How could farmers benefit from better irrigation in your broadcast area? Would they be able to, for example, grow more crops per season?

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This story looks at land ownership issues in DRC. The customary power of the traditional chiefs allows them to sell farmers’ land without their consent. Yet national laws exist, and state that the government owns all land. With two parallel legal systems, conflicts over land ownership are common. If the national policy of decentralization is widely recognized and proves effective, this situation may change.

These circumstances are even more confusing and tense for refugees returning to reclaim land. Other farmers may have taken over their land. Legal papers may not be recognized or available. This complex situation is difficult for anyone who just wants to make a peaceful living from the land. If farmers cannot prove land ownership, they cannot use land as collateral for loans. In addition women, cannot own land without their husband’s consent.

For a detailed backgrounder on land conflict issues in the Great Lakes region, see:

www.odi.org.uk/resources/download/1602.pdf.

Here are three Farm Radio Weekly stories that show a successful return to land:

-Fifty years after independence, families finally have land to call their own (FRW #73, July 2009) http://weekly.farmradio.org/2009/07/13/kenya-fifty-years-after-independence-families-finally-have-land-to-call-their-own-irin/

-Southern Africa: Farm workers become farm owners (FRW# 69, June 2009)
http://weekly.farmradio.org/2009/06/08/3-southern-africa-farm-workers-become-farm-owners-inter-press-service-the-namibian/

-Namibia: Bushmen return to ancestral lands (FRW# 49, December 2008) http://weekly.farmradio.org/2008/12/22/2-namibia-bushmen-return-to-ancestral-lands-agence-france-presse/

Land laws and rights to land are a hot topic in many countries. You may be inspired to produce a show investigating this in detail. You could consider various angles:

Land rights
-Are there peoples in your country who were displaced by former regimes and who are now resettled, or wish to resettle their ancestral lands?
-Are there national laws, policies and procedures to return land to those who have been displaced? If so, are they being implemented? If not, why not?
-If peoples have been resettled, through what process did they obtain the right to return to the land?
-What challenges did these people face after resettlement and how did they overcome them?
-If people have been resettled on farmland, do they have the skills and financial resources to make a living as farmers? Have any retraining programs been put in place? What national or local organizations, governmental agencies, or NGOs are working on this issue?
-Are resettled people discarding traditional land uses in favour of new uses? If so, why?
-If legal proceedings are underway to resolve a land claim, what arguments are being considered?

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Wheat stem rust (also known as black rust) can destroy entire fields. Stem rust is caused by the fungus Puccinia graminis. The last major stem rust epidemic swept across North America’s wheat fields in the early 1950s. It destroyed up to 40 per cent of the crop. Rust-resistant wheat varieties were then developed. These varieties kept the disease at bay until it was discovered in Uganda in 1999. Slowly but surely, rust is spreading to neighbouring countries.

Wheat is one of the world’s staple food crops. Any threat to its continued production is taken seriously. Yet reports of the level of threat vary. Some news outlets report that starvation is imminent. Others state that it is just a matter of time before scientists release new varieties of wheat which are resistant to the new strains of rust.

The following UN Food and Agriculture Organization web pages track and report on stem rust: http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/rust/stem/en/ and
http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/core-themes/theme/pests/wrdgp/en/.

Basic information on, and photos of, stem rust can be found here: http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=9910.

This article in The Economist provides a map, illustrating where rust has been found, and which countries are thought to be in danger: http://www.economist.com/node/16481593.
Other reports and opinions can be found at:
-http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2010/jul/19/stem-rust-uganda
-http://www.wired.com/magazine/2010/02/ff_ug99_fungus/.

Farm Radio International has produced a number of scripts on pests and diseases in crops. For example:
-Understanding Plant Diseases Package 72, Script 2, September 2004.
-Farmers Try to Beat a Virulent Disease Package 81, Script 6, August 2007.

If you broadcast to a region where farmers grow wheat, you could produce a story highlighting stem rust.
-Is stem rust a disease that farmers know how to deal with?
-Have they heard of Ug99, or reports of new strains of the disease?
-How do they currently manage diseases in wheat?
-Would they use fungicides to control rust? Are fungicides affordable?
-If not, what would they do if they discovered rust in their fields?
-How often do they check their wheat for signs of disease?

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In many regions of Africa, humans and wildlife live in close proximity. This can lead to conflict, as each species does what comes naturally to survive. Humans kill animals for food, while large animals such as elephants can be a threat to crops and human life. In this story from Zambia, humans are killing wild animals to eat or sell their meat. But if humans kill endangered or protected animals, they can be prosecuted for poaching.

Ensuring that humans and wild animals can survive alongside each other is a complicated task. For more information on COMACO’s work, refer to their website: http://www.itswild.org/.

Recent media items on the topic include:
-A short item on how the population of large mammals in Africa’s game parks has dropped:
http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE66C3LC20100713

-The UN Food and Agriculture Organization announced that they are testing their Human-Wildlife Conflict Toolkit in southern Africa. The toolkit describes various methods to help resolve, prevent and mitigate the growing problem of conflict between humans and wild animals. For more information, see: http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/44027/icode/.

The toolkit can be downloaded in sections or as a whole document here: http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/i1048e/i1048e00.htm.

To learn how chilies and bees can be used to protect farmers’ fields, visit the following websites:
-Elephant Pepper Development Trust: http://www.elephantpepper.org/index.html
-Elephants and Bees Research: http://www.elephantsandbees.com/Lucy_King/Welcome.html

Here are some previous Farm Radio Weekly stories on this topic:
- “Chilies are a harmless ’weapon’ against intruding elephants” (FRW #105, March 2010)
-“Kenya: ‘Beehive fence’ can keep elephants away from crops” (FRW #86, November 2009)
-“Africa: Tiny but powerful – bees and chilies can keep elephants away from crops” (FRW #1, December 2007)

Wildlife attracts tourists, who spend money. Yet this money goes to tour companies, governments and hotels, while local communities do not often benefit. Farmers will protect their homes and crops from wildlife in any way they can, especially when they do not benefit from tourism or conservation efforts. You could host a discussion show addressing the issue of conservation, tourism, and potential conflicts with farmers’ interests and priorities.

-What should be the national priority – safeguarding farmers’ interests or developing wildlife tourism?
-Are there local initiatives to address these issues?
-Are there local cases of human/wildlife conflict? How were these managed? How were they reported?
-How do farmers view wildlife and conservation initiatives?

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This story portrays a small-scale entrepreneur who spotted an opportunity. Over time, tastes change and particular foods come into favour, while others are left behind for various reasons. When fresh or nutritious food is in short supply, perceptions about food change. The entrepreneurs in this story took advantage of the situation and may even have contributed to a change in tastes, by making dried vegetables more widely available. Dried or dehydrated vegetables have many advantages. They do not rot as quickly as fresh vegetables. If vegetables are fully dried (less than 5% moisture), and kept in airtight containers, they can be stored for more than a year.

However, once they are exposed to air, they are prone to mould and mildew. Dried vegetables are easy and convenient to package and transport. They are easy to cook with and can be added to many recipes just by using extra water. Perhaps most importantly, dried vegetables contain the same amount of nutrients as fresh vegetables.

Here is a useful factsheet on methods for drying vegetables, nutritional values, and the steps involved in drying certain vegetables: http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/foodnut/09308.html.

Farm Radio International has produced many scripts on food processing and storage. Choose from this selection: http://farmradio.org/english/radio-scripts/food.asp.

In this script from 1996, Sarah Massengo in Tanzania explains how to prepare dried vegetables at home: Hints for the Small Farmer

In this script, farmers from Bangladesh explain how they dry rice seed. Farmers could experiment with similar methods for drying vegetables: Dry rice seed off the ground to ensure top quality

And this script describes a process for drying fruit and vegetables: Let’s Preserve Our Fruit and Vegetables!

This week’s story might inspire you to host a call-in show on which farmers share experiences of drying fruit and vegetables.
-How common is it to process fruit and vegetables for domestic storage and use in your broadcast area?
-Which crops are commonly processed or preserved?
-Who does the processing and storage work?
-How are dried fruit or vegetables used? Do listeners have recipes to share?
-If this is not common practice, why not? How could barriers be overcome?

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Prolonged droughts are not uncommon in Mozambique. An estimated 500 000 people live in chronic food insecurity. Without access to quality seeds, subsistence farmers recycle traditional seeds that produce poor yields, and remain poor. With the climate changing, there will likely be an increase in extreme weather events and even longer periods of drought. In response, farmers in Mozambique and elsewhere are learning new and innovative ways to store their seeds properly and ensure their food security.

Building metal silos can be costly. But Gilberto Tethere (the farmer who invented the low-cost Tethere silo) has proven that silos don’t have to be expensive.

To learn more about the Tethere silo and how to build your own, watch these informative videos:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7hchWO4nNAY
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AkN8YupgVWg (in Portuguese only).

You can see more pictures of the Tethere silo on Helvetas Mozambique’s flickr page: http://www.flickr.com/photos/44345799@N05/.

The Tethere silo or “Zero Emissions ‘Fridge’ for Rural Africa” is an adaptation of a metal silo that worked well in South and Central America for seed conservation (see www.postcosecha.net). But the Mozambican context proved different. Mozambican farmers were unable to afford the metal silos. In comparison to Central and South America, not only is Mozambique poorer but also geographically more isolated. Access to metal for construction is too expensive. Christian Steiner of Helvetas Mozambique provides an example: In Central America, small farmers use zinc metal roofs on their houses. These farmers can afford to consider building metal storage facilities. In Mozambique, most farmers do not have metal roofs on their houses. Metal roofs are a higher priority for these farmers than metal silos.

Gilberto Tethere understood that farmers in northern Mozambique needed more affordable, locally-adapted silos. And, out of necessity, innovation was born.

Maybe there are innovative farmers in your area. Why not interview them to find out if there is another low-cost, innovative way to store seeds?

Here are some interesting Farm Radio International scripts about seed storage and preventing post-harvest losses:
Innovative farmer uses pounded maize cobs to protect stored maize
Communities Revive a Traditional Method of Storing Grain in Times of Need
Storing cow-pea seeds for a season and a reason
Avoid Farm Losses by Improving Storage Methods
Avoid Post-Harvest Losses with Proper Handling: Eight Radio Spots

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This story presents an example of innovative agricultural processing. As the entrepreneur in the story demonstrates, processing foods can increase income not only for the processor, but also for the farmers who can sell more of their crops. Often, it means that perishable foods such as fruits and vegetables are preserved and do not have to be eaten immediately. Or, as in this case, a by-product is given a use and value.

Pumpkins, squashes, gourds, melons and cucumbers all belong to the Cucurbitaceae family. There are many edible species in this family, and they often have names which are local to an area. According to Josephine Bouanga, four species are commonly grown in the Republic of the Congo: squash or pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata and Cucurbita pepo), watermelon (Citrullus lanatus), and bottle gourd, Lagenaria siceraria.

Most parts of a squash plant can be eaten, including the flowers. In some parts of the world, roasted pumpkin seeds are commonly eaten as a snack.
Wikipedia has a short entry on squashes here: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squash_%28plant%29.

If you are interested in further information on the nutritional benefits of pumpkin seeds, you may visit this site:
The World’s Healthiest Foods’ article on pumpkin seeds:
http://www.whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=foodspice&dbid=82.

Here is a previous Farm Radio Weekly story on pumpkin:
Pumpkin co-op offers growing tips (August 3rd, 2009, Issue #76)

There are many Farm Radio International Scripts on food processing and storage at: http://farmradio.org/english/radio-scripts/food.asp.

Two scripts which cover squash in particular:
-Farmers in Eastern Nigeria Grow the Fluted Pumpkin Package 71, Script 1
June 2004;
-The Three Sisters: Maize, Beans and Squash Package 58, Script 6 January 2001.

You may wish to search for farmers and other entrepreneurs in your community who have found innovative ways to process and market local foods:
-What sort of market research did the entrepreneurs conduct to ensure that consumers, distributors, or retailers would be interested in purchasing their new products?
-Were the entrepreneurs supported by local organizations such as farmers’ cooperatives or micro-credit institutions?
-How have farmers adapted to increased demand for the locally produced food?
-Have local consumers received any particular benefits from these activities (such as improved access to nutritious foods)?

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The organizations involved in the Security in Mobility initiative are: the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), the International Organization for Migration (IOM), the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), and the Institute for Security Studies (ISS). The Security in Mobility initiative released their report at a launch in Nairobi on June 29, 2010. The launch was attended by government representatives, NGOs and pastoralists. Broadcasters should watch for updates on this story.

Pastoralists have always travelled freely in search of grazing land and water. With the effects of climate change, they need to travel further, often into new territories. This can cause conflict. Border restrictions which began when the affected East African countries achieved independence, along with regional security concerns, can create tensions.

The new Common Market protocol which came into effect on July 1 promises free movement of people, goods, services and capital across the East African Community’s five members: Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Tanzania and Burundi. It is hoped that the new protocol will ease the situation for pastoralists. Augustine Lotodo, a member of parliament in the East African Legislative Assembly, states, “With the coming into effect [on 1 July] of the common market protocol, pastoralists like the Maasai, the Pokot and the Somali, who do not believe in borders as they have kin in more than one country, will enjoy better freedom of movement across the borders.” The Common Market does not, however, cover other key countries and their borders: Somalia, Ethiopia and Sudan.

Further information and background on the issues facing pastoralists can be found on these websites:
-The website of the World Initiative for Sustainable Pastoralism: http://www.iucn.org/wisp/
-The website of the Pastoralist Communication Initiative: http://www.pastoralists.org/
-The website of the League for Pastoral Peoples and Endogenous Livestock Development, an advocacy and support group for pastoralists who depend on common property resources: http://www.pastoralpeoples.org/

Here is an article from the New Agriculturist that reports on the recent Pastoralism and Climate Change Adaptation conference in Kenya: http://www.new-ag.info/focus/focusItem.php?a=1669

Here is a magazine article which shows how one Kenyan community is involved in policy-making to support pastoralists:
Pastoralism: Shifts in policy-making

Previous Farm Radio Weekly News items on issues facing pastoralists in East Africa:
Pastoralists survive drought by adapting
Herders oppose controversial sugarcane project
Watermelons a sign of peace between farmers and herders
‘Devil tree’ forces pastoralists to consider new livelihoods

Here are links to Farm Radio International scripts on pastoralists:
-Camels provide farmers in drylands with milk and income (Package 76, Script 4, October 2005)
-The role of native breeds in maintaining livestock health: Story ideas for the radio (Package 63, Script 3, April 2002)
-Livestock management practices to cope with climate change (Package 84, Script 7, August 2008)
-A mystery at the dairy: The importance of proper sanitation when working with animals (Package 63, Script 6, April 2002)

If you broadcast to any of the countries covered by the Security in Mobility initiative, you may want to look for local stories related to pastoralists, and in particular how government policies support or discourage their livelihoods. Ideas for stories include:

-Have local pastoralists been refused access to neighbouring countries? Or access to water or grazing?
-Are there stories of pastoralists who have successfully engaged with local authorities to secure a positive outcome for all parties?
-Are there any pastoralist support organizations in your region?
-Are there stories of local farmers who work with or support pastoralists in search of water and grazing?

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Aid agencies commonly distribute seeds and tools as a way for communities to recover from poor harvests. The current famine in Niger and the rest of the Sahel has prompted a number of calls for extra aid money, for food aid and for cash transfers. Preparing for and responding to such humanitarian emergencies is a complex operation. Some agencies prefer cash transfers. Some focus on dealing with malnutrition, while others hand out improved seeds. Each intervention brings some relief, but it is often short term. Many interventions do not plan for the long term. International agencies often disagree on the best way forward.

With regard to seeds, concerns are often raised about introducing improved or hybrid seeds. Many believe they are the best way to ensure a good yield. Yet some development organizations prefer to support traditional seeds and crops. They promote methods for sharing and preserving varieties which they believe are more reliable in local conditions.

For more information and for opinions on the current crisis, refer to these websites and pages:
http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=89734
http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/127307270366.htm
http://www.caritas.org/activities/emergencies/WestAfricaFoodCrisis.html (in English)
http://www.caritas.org/fractivities/emergencies/WestAfricaFoodCrisis.html (in French)
http://www.un-foodsecurity.org/node/616

Here are some previous FRW stories about seed, seed varieties and seed banks:
-“Farmers test best millet varieties for dry conditions” (Issue #6, January 2008)
-“Women traders play crucial role in providing locally adapted seeds” (Issue #9, February 2008)
-“Seed banks are the answer to chronic seed shortages” (Issue #80, September 2009)
-“Improved seeds improve livelihoods for women’s group” (Issue #27, July 2008).

Farm Radio International has produced some relevant scripts on local seed supplies:
-“Rebuilding Local Seed Supplies After Armed Conflict or Other Emergency Situations” (Package 67, Script 1, June 2003)
-“Save your Own Seeds, Part One: Seed Selection” (Package 42, Script 1
October 1996)
-“Save your Own Seeds, Part Two: Seed Storage” (Package 42, Script 2
October 1996).

Access to quality seed is an issue in many regions. Debates on the use of improved and traditional seeds are often heated. You could engage farmers or farmers’ organizations in such debates. Here are some suggested questions:
-Is improved seed affordable? Can you save the seeds after harvesting crops grown from improved seed?
-Does improved seed always gives a good yield? How does it compare to local varieties?
-What other factors do you consider when deciding which seed to use? Who in the family decides which seed to plant?

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In the last twenty years, drama, music and puppetry have become popular tools for communication and development work (alongside radio drama of course!) Participatory theatre can be used in a variety of settings and needs little or no equipment. Music and drama are also useful for situations where few people read and write, or when audiences speak different languages. Done well, these creative communication methods can overcome social, linguistic and cultural barriers. Many attribute the rise of what is known as Theatre for Development or TfD to Augusto Boal, a Brazilian educator. In TfD, audiences participate in dramas and learn through experience. This can be a non-confrontational way to encourage communities to talk about difficult subjects.

Here is a short background piece on theatre for development:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_for_development

And here are some basic notes and suggestions on how drama can be used in communities:
http://tilz.tearfund.org/Publications/Footsteps+51-60/Footsteps+58/Using+theatre+in+development.htm

Here is an FRW story which includes an example of using public theatre to raise awareness:
-Burkina Faso: Maternal health is a human right, insists Amnesty International

A good proportion of Farm Radio International’s scripts are mini-dramas. Like face-to-face theatre, music and puppetry, mini-dramas are an opportunity to educate listeners while entertaining them.

Here is a link to a Farm Radio International script, developed with an organization which uses theatre in its work:
-Developing cotton organizations in Mali: From Village Association to cooperative

Drama, theatre, music or puppets do not work in all cultures. Some people are too shy to join in. Others just find it does not suit their working method or style of learning. Participants and audiences may react in different ways; it is good to be aware of this.

You might consider producing a radio drama with theatre as the theme. Issues to explore include:
-Is theatre relevant in your culture? Is theatre used just for entertainment or does it sometimes have an educational role?
-How would people react if asked to join in a participatory drama? Would youth be interested?
-How comfortable would participants or facilitators be discussing topics such as HIV/AIDS through drama? More or less so than with other communication tools?

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Contract farming provides an opportunity for small-scale farmers to gain a regular income. But it can have many pitfalls. It is a much-debated topic.

When contract farming is managed with positive regard for farmers, and has the right support, as in this story, farmers and businesses benefit. But contract farming is not for all small-scale farmers. It carries certain risks. It often works best when farmers are organized into associations or co-operatives, as in Zambia.

Zambian Breweries wanted to produce a value-for-money beer, using locally grown sorghum. But they were aware of the conditions in which farmers grew sorghum. For example, farmers often could not afford the initial investments needed. Local farming practices, coupled with reliance on rains, meant farmers that could not always guarantee the amount or quality level of sorghum needed. To support farmers, and therefore ensure their supply of sorghum, the brewery sought partnerships with agencies such as CARE International and CLUSA.

Other agro-industrial companies may not share this ethic, may not be reliable, or may exploit their monopoly position. If farmers rely on the contract as their only source of income, they put themselves in a risky position. For example, the firm may reject “low-quality” produce. They may choose not to renew the contract. In the worst case scenario, farmers may not be able to pay back loans, and may become indebted. As more farmers are contracted to produce the same variety of the same crop, crop diversity is reduced. This can have severe consequences, both on-farm and within a region.

The SABMiller Enterprise Development Report, which you can access here: “Making a difference through beer,” claimed in 2009 that many farmers in their smallholder programmes have moved from subsistence farming to small-scale agribusinesses, and now have more disposable income and more secure livelihoods.

Refer to these short publication for case studies and background reading on the debates surrounding contract farming:
-“Making contract farming work with co-operatives” from the Overseas Development Institute, UK.
-“Unlocking the potential of contract farming: Lessons from Ghana” from International Institute for Environment and Development, UK.
-“Contract farming: Partnerships for growth” from the UN Food and Agriculture Organization.
-“Contract farming offers fresh hope for Africa’s declining agriculture” from the World Agroforestry Centre.

FAO has also recently established an online “Contract Farming Resource Centre”: http://www.fao.org/ag/ags/contract-farming/en/
The full magazine article from which this story was taken can be read here: http://ileia.leisa.info/index.php?url=show-blob-html.tpl&p[o_id]=245270&p[a_id]=211&p[a_seq]=1

Here are links to Farm Radio Weekly news stories which tell how farmers have benefited from supplying beer companies:
-Rwanda: 5,000 farmers contracted to grow maize for beer (The East African)
-South Africa: Ancient brew has Eastern Cape buzzing with employment opportunities
-East Africa: Farmers earn better profits by selling directly to Coca Cola and East Africa Breweries

This radio script from Uganda tells the story of a farmer who plants a new variety of sorghum that is supplied by a beer company looking for local supplies:
-Sekedo, a drought resistant sorghum for Karamoja (Package 84, Script 1, August 2008).

Finally, here are some questions to begin a local debate on the merits and disadvantages of contract farming:
-Is contract farming common in your region? If so, what type of contract farming?
-Do the companies involved support farmers in any way beyond financial returns?
-Do the companies practice “corporate social responsibility”?
-How common are “fair trade” initiatives in your region?
-What are farmers’ experiences with contract farming?
-What have been the major difficulties? And the benefits?
-In what way do these experiences differ to farmers’ or farmer groups’ experiences with fair trade?

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The G8 countries are: France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada and Russia.

The seven African countries invited to this year’s meeting were: South Africa, Malawi, Ethiopia, Senegal, Nigeria, Algeria and Egypt.

The G8 declaration for the 2010 meeting can be found at: http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/g8_muskoka_declaration.pdf.

More information on the agreements made at L’Aquila regarding food security:
http://www.g8italia2009.it/static/G8_Allegato/LAquila_Joint_Statement_on_Global_Food_Security%5B1%5D,0.pdf.

And here is a document that briefly describes the Global Agriculture and Food Security Programme:
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/NEWS/Resources/GAFSPQuestionsAnswers_ext042210.pdf.

You can find general background information on the G8 at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8.

Read a recent summary of progress towards achieving the MDGs here:
http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/download/4908.pdf.

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The food crisis in the Sahel has been unfolding for some months now. This week, international aid agencies are calling for increased assistance to the region. Many agencies are present in Mali, Niger and Chad, and are reporting on the conditions they find. The situation is reportedly worsening, as organizations like the World Food Programme and FAO try to reach the worst-affected areas. Broadcasters should watch for updates to this story.

More on the food insecurity in Niger and Mali:
http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900SID/EDIS-84VLZS?OpenDocument
http://health.yahoo.net/news/s/ap/af_niger_food_crisis
http://www.oxfam.org.uk/applications/blogs/pressoffice/?p=13388
http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/IRIN/c9490165b0149577aa21e436f0d817c7.htm

A short broadcast from BBC Radio 4 this week:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/today/hi/today/newsid_8750000/8750961.stm

Food shortages and droughts are common throughout Africa. One way to report on them is to look at how farmers, NGOs and governments can prepare for difficult times. The situation in the Sahel affects millions of people. Try to investigate issues on a local or regional level. You could interview a range of people:
-How do farmers and rural communities react to stories of famine from other regions?
-Does the local government have plans in place to deal with such emergencies?
-If your region is ever affected by flood, drought or hunger, how do NGOs and local authorities respond? Should they do more?

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Since the end of the civil war in Liberia, investors have slowly been trickling back. Rubber plantations in Liberia have recently been in the news as the subject of human rights concerns. Many smallholder farmers made their living from rubber before the war.

The President of Liberia, Ellen Sirleaf-Johnson, recently made a speech about the future of Liberia, talking about the growth of the economy and continuing challenges. You can read a summary here: http://allafrica.com/stories/201005240600.html.

You can read more on Buchanan Renewables and using rubber to generate electricity here:
http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2009/09/liberia-converting-old-rubber-trees-to-electricity
http://www.buchananrenewables.com/assets/pdf/Time%20Magazine%20Article.pdf

Here is a podcast from 2007, in which the president and CEO of Buchanan Renewable Energies talk about plans to start up the initiative and some of the difficulties encountered along the way: http://www.cfr.org/publication/14864/rejuvenating_liberias_rubber_plantations.html

Here is a Farm Radio Weekly News story from Uganda about green energy:
The fruits of innovation: Ugandan company wins green energy award

And a Farm Radio International script about solar energy in Tanzania:
SolarAid’s micro solar project in rural Tanzania: Tremendous solar energy potential

This story highlights an innovative use for a natural resource which would otherwise be unproductive. You could look for stories in your region related to innovation in energy production and use.

-What are the common issues in relation to access to energy (such as electricity) in your area?
-Are there organizations working locally on alternative energy sources such as biogas or solar energy?
-How affordable is energy?
-Do people commonly rely on biomass such as wood or animal manure for energy? How sustainable is this?

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